Month: November 2018

This blog was written with the purpose of making myself more familiar with the particulars of Mexican history; to order the most important events and post the results so others may also learn from my research.  I originally intended to produce a more streamlined product, however I wanted to add in details and facts I felt were lacking in my previous education regarding Mexican history.  Consequently, in the interest of both brevity and objectivity, the commentary I had planned to accompany this timeline will be posted separately, as a sort of addendum.  That said, here is a chronology of post-colonial Mexican history:

• Background
  • By 1810, Spain is in decline and its empire is falling apart.  Facing the dominance of Napoleonic France on the European continent, and the British Royal Navy on the seas, Spain begins losing control of its Latin American colonies.  Inspired by the successful revolution of the American Colonies, and subsequent establishment of the United States, revolutionary movements arise in Spanish colonies.  This is made possible when Napoleon Bonaparte deposes the Spanish king, Ferdinand VII, and places his brother Joseph Bonaparte as ruler of Spain in 1808.
• September 16, 1810
  • Mexican Independence Day: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a parish priest and revolutionary, issues a call for independence and redistribution of wealth. Hidalgo’s army is disorganized, unruly, and effectively comes to an end when Hidalgo and other revolutionary leaders are captured and executed in mid-1811.
• 1814
  • Napoleon is forced to withdraw his armies from Spain as the Allies reduce his rule to that of France alone. His withdrawal from Spain allows Ferdinand VII to return to the Spanish throne and divert troops and resources to quell revolutionary movements in New Spain (Mexico).
• 1820
  • A rebellion in Spain forces Ferdinand VII to reinstate the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, which he had nullified after returning to power six years earlier. This move is seen by both the ruling and revolutionary factions in New Spain as an opportunity for independence to be gained; under their own respective power.
• August 24, 1821
  • The Treaty of Cordoba is signed: under the leadership of Agustin de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero, New Spain is officially renamed The Mexican Empire. Roman Catholicism is established as the official religion, and unity is encouraged between Mestizos and Amerindians.
• 1822
  • Iturbide proclaims himself Emperor Agustin I and rules as dictator.
• 1823
  • Mission San Francisco de Solano is established in northern Alta California to counter Russian colonizing efforts at Fort Ross and Bodega Bay.
• 1824
  • A revolt is led against Iturbide, Mexico is proclaimed a Federal Republic, and the Constitution of 1824 is written; establishing several democratic goals and organizing Mexico into 19 states, 4 territories, and a Federal District (Mexico City).  Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna is the most prominent leader arising from the revolt.
  • A political power struggle between Federalist and Centralist forces ensues. Guadalupe Victoria, a Federalist, is elected president.
  • Without Spanish tribute, Commanche raids increase in northern Mexico. The Mexican government encourages American settlers to migrate to the sparsely populated state of Coahuila y Tejas; in the hope of creating a buffer zone between the Commanches and Mexico.
  • The population of Mexico is approximately 6.3 Million.
• 1829
  • Federalists revolt and place Vicente Guerrero as president.
  • Slavery is outlawed in Mexico.
• 1830
  • Mexico closes its borders to immigration and begins imposing oppressive restrictions on Tejanos; contrary to the liberties granted by the Constitution of 1824.
• 1833
  • Political power has shifted multiple times between Federalists and Centralists. Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna is elected president as a Federalist.  He gives his vice president, Valentin Farias, power to enact various reforms.  Farias directs multiple liberal reforms; weakening the power of the Catholic Church in particular.
• 1834
  • Mexico orders the secularization of missions in Alta California, against the wishes of the Territorial Governor Jose Figueroa.
  • American settlers outnumber Tejanos in Coahuila y Tejas nearly four to one.
• 1835
  • Santa Anna dissolves the Constitution of 1824, establishes a dictatorship, and centralizes the Mexican government. His tyrannical reforms result in the revolt of several Mexican states over the next five years.  Three republics are proclaimed from these revolts: The Republic of Texas (1836), the Republic of the Rio Grande (1839), and the Republic of Yucatan (1840).  Only Texas is successful in the long run.  Santa Anna is defeated by the Texan army under Sam Houston, taken prisoner, and forced to sign a treaty recognizing Texas independence May 14, 1836.  As victor, Texas declares the Rio Grande is the border with Mexico.  Mexico declares it is the Nueces River.
• 1838
  • France declares war on Mexico over a demand for economic reparations. Santa Anna defeats the French forces at Veracruz and a peace is brokered wherein Mexico owes France 600,000 Pesos.  Santa Anna rules as dictator until 1839.
• 1840
  • The period of the Great Commanche Raids begins. Over a the next several years, Commanche forces numbering in the hundreds penetrate far into Mexico.  Hundreds of captives and hundreds of thousands of livestock are taken by Commanches.
• 1841
  • After a brief respite, Santa Anna leads a revolt and resumes the presidency once again.
• 1845
  • Frustrations over Santa Anna’s centrist policies and tax increases cause him to relinquish power and go into exile.
  • Under President Tyler, The Republic of Texas is annexed by the United States as the 28^th state.
• 1846-1847
  • Intending to expand U.S. territory, President Polk sends a diplomat to Mexico; authorized to negotiate the southern boundary of Texas and offer up to $25 million for California. Mexico refuses to receive the diplomat and Polk sends the U.S. army under General Zachary Taylor into the disputed area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande.  A Mexican Army enters the disputed territory as well, is defeated, and the U.S declares war on Mexico.
  • Santa Anna becomes president of Mexico again but is defeated in battle by U.S. forces.
  • U.S. forces gain control of Mexico and its territories. Despite frequent numerical superiority and the advantage of terrain, Mexican forces are unable to stop the U.S. Army under General Winfield Scott on its march from Vera Cruz to Mexico City.  Mexico City falls, and the Mexican government relocates to Hidalgo, north of Mexico City.
• 1848
  • The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed and by its terms:
    • Mexico cedes all claims to Texas and recognizes the Rio Grande as the U.S. southern border.
    • Mexico cedes California and New Mexico territories to the U.S. (amounting to approximately 55% of Mexican territory and containing about 1% of its population).
    • The U.S. pays Mexico $15 million and settles all claims (over $3 million worth) of U.S. Citizens against Mexico.
    • The inhabitants of California and New Mexico are offered U.S. Citizenship and their property rights are acknowledged by the U.S.
  • Santa Anna goes into exile in Jamaica.
• 1853
  • Conservative forces overthrow the weak Mexican government and Santa Anna becomes Mexican President again.
  • Gadsden Purchase: Mexico sells a 30,000 square mile region of what is now southern Arizona and New Mexico to the U.S. for $10 million, bringing the Mexico-U.S. border to its current position.
• 1855
  • Liberal forces under Juan Alvarez and Ignacio Comonfort overthrow Santa Anna and begin The Reform. The Reform includes stripping the Catholic Church and Mexican military of many privileges and establishing Mexico as a secular democracy.  Liberal leaders attempt to move Mexico from a Centrist to a Federal system, and universal male suffrage is established.
• 1858
  • The War of the Reform begins: civil war breaks out between liberal and conservative forces. The U.S. supports the Liberals while the Conservatives are supported by Frances, Britain, and Spain.
• 1861
  • Liberal forces take Mexico City and Benito Juarez is constitutionally elected as president. The Mexican government is bankrupt, and Juarez suspends interest payments on Mexico’s substantial foreign debts.
  • Britain, Spain, and France occupy Veracruz to protect their financial interests. Britain and Spain soon withdraw.  Napoleon III of France intends to incorporate Mexico into a larger empire and sends an army to Mexico City.  A brief Mexican victory over French troops at Puebla on May 5, 1862 is celebrated to this day as Cinco de Mayo.
• 1863
  • French troops occupy Mexico City and Napoleon III installs Maximillian as Emperor of Mexico. The Juarez government flees to northern Mexico and is diplomatically supported by the U.S.
• 1867
  • The American Civil War is over and the U.S. pressures France to withdraw from Mexico. After three years of rule, in which he is too liberal to appease the Mexican conservatives and too independent to appease the French, Maximillian is deposed.  Juarez returns to power and has Maximillian executed by firing squad.
  • Juarez is re-elected president. Over the next several years, he continues to secularize Mexico, expand infrastructure, and strengthen executive power.
• 1872
  • President Juarez dies after a close election in which former ally Porfirio Diaz runs against him. Sebastian Lerdo succeeds Juarez to the presidency in accordance with the Mexican constitution.
• 1876
  • Porfirio Diaz leads a successful revolt against the recently re-elected Lerdo.
  • The Porfiriato: Over most of the next 35 years, Diaz rules as a dictator with the aid of a small group of intellectuals. He expands the economy and infrastructure considerably; largely based on foreign investment.  The planning and development imposed on Mexico during this period leads to an overall reduction in liberty.  Mexico becomes stable but autocratic.
  • European and U.S. funds finance railways, ports, communications, and energy production. The Rurales, a federal law enforcement agency, reduces crime in the rural areas but corruption in the organization leads to violations of Mexican civil liberties.  Education remains low among most Mexicans.  Regional governors and mayordomos exercise local authority while being supervised by political chiefs, who report to Diaz himself.  Amerindians increasingly become virtual serfs on large haciendas.
• 1901
  • Oil production begins; heavily financed by the U.S. and Great Britain.
• 1910
  • Francisco Madero challenges Diaz for the presidency and is imprisoned.  He escapes to Texas, declares he is rightful president of Mexico, and calls for revolution against the Diaz government. Madero is backed by guerrilla leaders such as Pascual Orozco and Francisco “Pancho” Villa.
• 1911
  • Madero’s forces capture Ciudad Juarez and Diaz resigns the presidency. Madero is elected president but fails to consolidate power and is constantly challenged by widespread rebellions.
• 1913
  • Madero’s presidency is toppled by forces led by the military commander Victoriano Huerta. Madero is executed by Huerta’s forces and Huerta proclaims himself president of Mexico.  Fighting in Mexico City results in many civilian deaths.
• 1914
  • Huerta is overthrown and Venustiano Carranza becomes dictator, supported by Alvaro Obregon and opposed by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata.
• 1917
  • A new constitution, based largely on the Constitution(s) of 1824 and 1857, is established under Carranza. It curbs the power of the Catholic Church and institutes universal suffrage.  It strongly increases the role of government and socializes labor, education, health, and property among other things.  It starts the process of taking possession of the petroleum industry from the American and British companies that had financed it for years.
  • Despite an attempt from Germany to enlist Mexico into the Central Powers, Mexico stays neutral during World War One.
  • By this time, approximately 900,000 Mexicans have emigrated to the U.S. to escape the Revolution since its beginning in 1910.
• 1920
  • Obregon take’s power from Carranza in a coup and Carranza is assassinated shortly afterward. Obregon expands the liberal agenda set forth in the constitution and establishes various bureaucracies to enforce it.  Multiple artists, including Diego Rivera, are commissioned to create public paintings and murals; especially those glorifying indigenous and revolutionary history.
• 1924
  • Obregon is succeeded as president by Plutarco Calles. Calles nationalizes the petroleum industry and aims to further weaken the Catholic Church.
• 1928
  • Obregon is re-elected as president and assassinated two weeks later.
• 1929
  • The National Revolutionary Party (precursor to the modern day Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI) is established. Encouraged and overseen by Calles, it effectively becomes an oligarchy ruling over Mexico as a one-party state.  The Great Depression slows government programs such as education reform and redistribution of land.  Infrastructure sees limited expansion.
• 1934
  • Lazaro Cardenas is elected president. He continues the policy of land redistribution and nationalizing church property.
• 1938
  • The Mexican government expropriates the properties of British and American oil companies.
• 1944
  • Mexico diplomatically supports the Allies in World War Two. The war effort expands the economy and Mexico agrees to pay U.S. oil companies $24 million, plus interest, for properties expropriated in 1938.
• 1945
  • Mexico joins the United Nations.
• 1946
  • After almost thirty years of liberal programs and social reforms, the wealth gap continues to grow. The overall prestige and power of the military dwindles however, and a long succession of civilian presidents begins.
• 1958
  • Women begin to vote in Mexico.
• 1968
  • Protestors against Mexico’s one-party system use the Olympic Games in Mexico City as a stage to bring international attention to what is seen as an anti-democratic government. Government security forces clash with protestors, resulting in at least 100 dead.
• 1970
  • Mexico’s population is over 50 million and accelerating at a rate of three percent per year.
• 1976
  • Mexico’s oil industry expands. The government begins using oil money to fund welfare programs and industrial expansion; albeit in conjunction with borrowing massive amounts of foreign money at high interest rates.  Oil prices soon fall, and Mexico’s foreign debt is enormous.
• 1982
  • Mexico owes $800 billion to foreign investors and the government defaults on its debts.
• 1985
  • An earthquake hits Mexico City, resulting in 7,000-10,000 dead. The government’s limited ability to deal with victims contributes to the formation of a grassroots anti-PRI movement.
• 1988
  • By this time, the border with the U.S. is the main route for transport of marijuana, cocaine, and other drugs from Mexico and Columbia into the U.S. Over the next 30 years, Mexico and the U.S. will lose tens of thousands of lives, and billions of dollars combating the drug trade.
• 1994
  • The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), signed in 1992, goes into effect.
  • Revolt by Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) in Chiapas; demanding social justice for the Amerindian population. The Mexican military battles with the EZLN and its guerilla allies.
  • After the assassinations of multiple high-ranking PRI members, PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon is elected president.
  • The value of the Peso plummets and the U.S. provides a $20 billion bailout which stabilizes the currency.
• 2000
  • National Action Party (PAN) candidate Vicente Fox wins the presidential election, ending more than 70 years of single party rule under the PRI.
• 2006
  • A close and contested election sees Felipe Calderon gaining the presidency while Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (AMLO) claims he is the rightful president. Massive protests occur over the controversial election.
• 2012
  • Enrique Peña Nieto is elected President under the PRI. AMLO is the runner up again and he demands a recount.  A recount of more than half of polling places reconfirms Nieto is president.
• 2017
  • Mexico’s homicide rate is the highest in recent history: over 29,000 homicides in one year.
• 2018
  • An election filled with coalition building results in AMLO’s election to the Presidency. AMLO’s objectives include expansion of leftist policies in Mexico.

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